by Jeffrey C Kadlowec, Registered Architect

Continued increases in land value within urban centers have given rise to taller and slender structures, both residential and commercial [1]. The framing system used in these is typically dependent upon the building height and construction costs. Low-rise residential buildings are usually platform framed with wood or steel studs often atop a concrete parking area or commercial units. Mid-rise buildings are commonly constructed with steel skeletal frames. High-rises are more likely utilize a concrete superstructure due to compressive strength and fire resistivity.

The effects of dead and live loads on these structures increases relative to their height. Calculating gravity loads is a simple linear progression with each successive floor. Engineering buildings to withstand lateral loads becomes more complex due to exponential nature of cantilevered deflection. While considering the function and aesthetics, the structural engineer must design every structure with durability and enough strength to limit deformation [1].

A variety of methods can be utilized to resist lateral forces. Shear walls are effective in stud framing and concrete structures, while diagonal bracing and moment connections better suited for steel frames. A combination of these systems can be advantageous in controlling displacement and should be considered when addressing the inertia forces caused by their dead loads [2].

Though wind loads cause continuous stresses on buildings and peak in extreme weather conditions, seismic loads are far more likely to cause catastrophic failures. Similar to the seismic zone maps of Section 1613 of the International Building Code (IBC) [3], [4] presents a figure dividing India into four zones from low risk through moderate, high and very high. Although minor earthquakes can be disruptive, moderate ones can cause structural damage. Major quakes like those recently experienced in Turkey can be absolutely devastating, resulting in partial or total building collapse. In much the way that a large portion of the building code is written to protect property while prioritizing egress and life safety in case of fire, adequate care should be taken in the design of structures to resist earthquakes.

The construction industry is currently experiencing unprecedented growth while simultaneously fraught by project delays, cost overruns and quality standards [5]. The immergence, integration and utilization of building information modeling (BIM) provides opportunities to address these issues through a shared source, however this comes with its own set of unique problems. The technology used to create parametric multi-dimensional models began in the manufacturing industry decades ago. The benefits could be seen in the many ways—from design and engineering, through accuracy of documentation, and to easy of redesign and future iterations. The downside is the steep learning curves inherent in these programs and advance knowledge required to understand its functions. Since most projects tend to be unique in design criteria, there are limits to the application of this method.

One area that is very well suited for implementation of BIM is that of both single- and multi-family housing. The repetitive nature of these buildings along with the economy of scales gained through modular design and the growing need for affordable housing makes these projects the ideal candidate for this technology. Panelized, prefabricated and preassembled are terms commonly used in off-site construction [6]. As [7] concludes a detailed case study, general contractors should be encouraged towards the implementation of these methods, especially in the area of structural framing.

References

[1] Sonawane, Anuja & Ghode, Prof. (2022). Comparative Seismic Analysis of High Rise Buildings with Different Structural Framing. International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 357-362. 10.32628/IJSRSET229665.
[2] Jose, S.M. & Rao, Asha & Ka, A. (2017). Comparative study on the effect of lateral stiffness on different structural framing systems subjected to lateral loads. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology. 8. 398-410.
[3] International Building Code (2018). Chapter 16, Structural Design. International Code Council. https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IBC2018/chapter-16-structural-design.
[4] Titiksh, Abhyuday & Gupta, Mohan. (2015). A Study of the Various Structural Framing Systems Subjected to Seismic Loads. 10.13140/RG.2.1.2167.1127.
[5] Rashidi, Ali & Yong, Wei & Maxwell, Duncan & Fang, Yihai. (2022). Construction planning through 4D BIM-based virtual reality for light steel framing building projects. Smart and Sustainable Built Environment. 10.1108/SASBE-06-2022-0127.
[6] Lu, N. and Liska, R. (2008), “Designers’ and general contractors’ perceptions of offsite construction techniques in the United States construction industry”, International Journal of Construction Education and Research, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 177-188.
[7] Killingsworth, John & Hashem M. Mehany, Mohammed & Ladhari, Hana. (2020). General contractors’ experience using off-site structural framing systems. Construction Innovation. ahead-of-print. 10.1108/CI-05-2019-0038.